Energy sources

Pure H2 does not exist naturally on earth. It is found all around us bonded to other elements like in water (H2O), or bonded to carbon to form methane (CH4), oil, or coal.

To make pure H2 suitable for use as a fuel, you need an energy source to break apart the molecules.

The energy source can be either electricity (produced from hydro, solar, wind) or fossil fuels (mainly natural gas).

Today 76% of the world’s H2 is produced using natural gas, and almost all the rest (23%) from coal. However this is undergoing a transition, as new end-users and governments are increasingly demanding that H2 is to be produced from low-carbon energy sources. This means that electrolysers must be powered by renewable sources (hydro, wind, solar), or that hydrogen production from fossil fuels must be accompanied with carbon capture, utilisation, or storage.

  • 2 % (2019)

    Total global energy demand used for producing H2

  • 560 million tonnes CO2

    Potential annual CO2 reduction in the EU by 2050 if H2 is adopted

Hydro-, solar- and windpower

Production

H2 production from natural gas is typically done in a process called steam methane reforming. Steam (H2O) and methane (CH4) are reacted together at high temperature and pressure to produce hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). 

H2 production from electricity takes place in an electrolyser. Water is fed into the electrolyser and an electric current splits water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. 

H2 has an extremely low density, and therefore the gas must be either compressed to high pressure or liquified to reduce its volume. The end-user type or distribution distance dictates whether it is liquid of compressed.

  • 70 million tonnes

    Total pure H2 production in 2019

  • 10 million tonnes

    EU green hydrogen production by 2030

  • €180-470 billion

    Estimated cumulative investments in green hydrogen in Europe by 2050

  • 39,000 tonnes per year

    Norwegian 2035 hydrogen demand from ferries and the Kystruten

Centralised production

Processing

Where large volumes of hydrogen are required, it makes sense to liquify hydrogen rather than transport it is a compressed gas.

Liquid hydrogen is extremely cold, with a temperature of -253°C. The tanks and storage facilities are highly insulated to minimise evaporation and heat loss to the surroundings, but these losses cannot be eliminated. Today, liquefying hydrogen requires roughly 11kwh/kg (ca. 30% of energy content), however new liquefaction methods reduce this to below 6.66 kwh/kg (ca. 20% of energy content).

For a given volume, liquid hydrogen carries 80%, and 128% more energy than compressed hydrogen at 700 bar and 500bar respectively.

  • -253 C

    Temperature of liquid H2

  • 80% denser than compressed hydrogen at 700bar

    Liquid H2 has 80% more energy per litre than compressed hydrogen at 700bar

  • 30%

    Average percentage of energy in hydrogen that is used to liquefy it today

Distribution

Historically, hydrogen consumers have been large scale industries such as refineries, fertiliser, and chemicals production. These end-users were situated close to hydrogen production sites and hydrogen was distributed as a gas in pipelines.

However, with rapidly increasing global interest in hydrogen, and with new end-users located over a wide geographical area, more effective distribution solutions are under development.

Compressed H2 is transported on road in containers filled with composite tanks. In total, the largest containers can transport around 1100kg hydrogen. LH2 is transported in road tankers which can hold up to 3500 kg hydrogen.

In the near future, hydrogen can be transported in other forms such as ammonia or within a Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier.

  • 1300kg

    Maximum mass of compressed hydrogen in a container trailer

  • 3500kg

    Maximum mass of liquid hydrogen in a road tanker

  • Over 4500km

    Global length of H2 pipelines

Trucks

Storage and bunkering

The best hydrogen storage solution is dependent on the area available and end-user demand.

Compressed gas transported to a bunkering/fuelling station will likely be stored in the same container that it was transported in. In the case of onsite production, the hydrogen will be compressed and stored in steel or composite tanks ready for the end-user.

Hydrogen will be stored at higher pressure than required on board a vessel or vehicle. This enables the gas to move from to the on-board hydrogen tank without any additional power requirement. The volume of storage required is dependent upon the frequency that end-users need re-fuelling.

For liquid hydrogen if the end-user requirement is lower than the capacity of a road tanker (3.5 tonnes), then bunkering will likely happen directly for the lorry tanker. However, if it is over 3.5 tonnes, or there are multiple end-users in quick succession, then liquid hydrogen will be stored but the bunkering location in upright cylindrical or spherical tanks. 

  • 15kg H2 per minute

    Bunkering rate of compressed hydrogen

  • 40 kg H2 per minute

    Bunkering rate of liquid hydrogen

End users

The transport sector makes up 24% of global energy-related CO2 emissions. To cut emissions in this sector, hydrogen and hydrogen carriers are a more suitable energy source than batteries for use-profiles with a combination of long distance, heavy duty and poor grid access.

The Norwegian maritime sector is leading the way. In 2021 The world’s first liquid hydrogen ferry will operate on the Hjelmeland – Nesvik connection, and from 2024 the Bodø-Moskenes connection will be run on hydrogen. From 2026, only zero-emission tourist vessels will be permitted in the world-heritage fjords. In Ocean Hyway Cluster’s HyInfra project, 66 ferry routes in Norway as well as Kystruten have been identified that hydrogen is more suitable than batteries, with a total hydrogen demand of over 100 tonnes per day

Other hydrogen projects exist within short sea shipping, cruise, high speed passenger ferries, fishing and aquaculture.

Initially, ports are will be key hubs for the roll-out of hydrogen infrastructure due to the high hydrogen volumes required by vessels. This will lead to the great opportunities for land transport refuelling of trucks, busses, and other vehicles.

  • 66

    Norwegian ferry connections where H2 is a viable option

  • 117,000 tonnes

    Potential annual CO2 reductions by 2035 with adoption of hydrogen and ammonia in the Norwegian maritime sector (Ferries, Kystruten, Offshore).

Large scale