For over 100 years, hydrogen has been used as an integral part of several industrial processes such as: fertiliser (ammonia) production, methanol production, crude oil refining, steel production. These uses have accounted for 96.5% of global hydrogen demand.

From 2020, the demand for pure hydrogen and ammonia is set to rise sharply as governments around the world realise its potential to decarbonise transport and heating.

Hydrogen can be used in all transport sectors, but its biggest potential is in heavy duty, long distance, high utilisation transport where pure battery solutions struggle. For example: Trucks, busses, maritime and shipping, aeroplanes. 

Hydrogen is often assigned a colour depending on how it is produced. The three most common colours are:

• Grey hydrogen
• Blue hydrogen
• Green hydrogen

An EU wide guarantee of origin system – CertifHy – has set an upper limit on the carbon intensity of hydrogen which can be classed as “Low-carbon”. The specified limit is 36.4g CO_2eq/MJ H₂ which represents a reduction of 60% compared to the benchmark process steam methane reforming pocess.

Grey hydrogen 

Hydrogen produced with emissions of more than 36.4 g CO2eq/MJ H2, e.g., by steam methane reformation or coal gasification without carbon capture technology..

Blue hydrogen

Hydrogen produced from a non-renewable energy source with emissions below 36.4g CO2eq/MJ H2 (4.37 tCO2/tH2), e.g., by SMR with CCUS.

Green hydrogen

Hydrogen produced via electrolysis with power from renewable sources and emissions below 36.4g CO_2eq/MJ H₂ (4.37 tCO2/tH2).

Many new projects around the world are increasingly requiring guarantees of origin for low carbon hydrogen, and some are going further and permitting only green hydrogen.

At least 23 countries have a low-carbon hydrogen strategy, with these accounting for around 70% of global GDP. Here a some highlights:

The EU hydrogen strategy describes in detail ambitions to roll out of infrastructure to 2030 and beyond. By 2030 the aim is to have 40GW electrolyser capacity – 10 million tonnes of H₂ production per year.

In Germany, the goal is 5 GW by 2030 and a further 5 GW by 2040. In Chile, the target is 25GW (4 million tonnes per year) by 2030. South Korea targets to power 10% of the countries cities with green hydrogen by 2030 and 30% by 2040.

Today, low carbon hydrogen production contributes less than 1% to the global hydrogen production. This share, however, is set to rapidly increase due to climate targets, and further accelerated by political will for a “green recovery” from the coronavirus crisis. At least 23 countries now have a low-carbon hydrogen strategy, with these accounting for around 70% of global GDP.

For example, the EU plans to install 6GW of electrolysers by 2024 and 40GW by 2030. Germany and Chile combined plan on installing 30GW by 2030. This electrolyser capacity alone will cost over NOK 200 billion to build. The EU hydrogen strategy estimates that cumulative investments in renewable hydrogen in Europe could be up to EUR 180-470 billion by 2050.

In 2019, the global demand for pure hydrogen was 70 million tonnes, and hydrogen mixed with other gasses a further 42 million tonnes. This hydrogen went to the following uses:

• Oil refining 33% – 38 000 000 tonnes
• Ammonia – 27% 31 000 000  tonnes
• Other pure (inc. transport) – 3.5%  4 000 000 tonnes
• Methanol – 10% – 12 000 000 tonnes
• Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) – 3.5% – 4 000 000 tonnes
• Other mixed – 23% – 26 000 000 tonnes

It is likely that the “other pure (inc. transport)” demand will increase its share significantly over the course of the next decade as the transport, heating and power sectors are decarbonised.

The bigger the steam reformer the cheaper the H₂ it can produce, and therefore it tends takes place in large industrial plants beside an end-user, for example an oil refinery or chemical production. Steam methane reforming is thus best suited to centralised production.

Electrolysers come in fixed sizes, up to the size of a shipping container. The H₂ demand dictates how many electrolysers you need. Due to this “modular” design, electrolysers are well suited to small-scale local production, as well as large-scale centralised production plants.

Equinor, Shell, Statkraft, Trønder Energi, Varanger Kraft, HyFuel, SFE, Norwegian Hydrogen, Greenstat, Gen2 Energy, Fuella, North Ammonia, Enivy, Hydro Havrand, Hafslund Eco, Aker Clean Hydrogen, Norsk Vindenergisenter

Equinor, Citec, Technip FMC

For transport of very large volumes of hydrogen, road transport becomes impractical and expensive. Liquid hydrogen transport by sea, Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHCs), ammonia, or hydrogen pipe networks are four options

The Kawasaki’s Suiso Frontier is the world’s first LH₂ carrier, with a capacity of 1250m³ (ca. 90 tonnes). The ship is expected to make her first voyage in early 2021. This capacity has the potential to vastly increase – as a comparison, the world’s largest LNG carriers have a capacity of 266,000m³.

Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHC’s) are an alternative to transporting large volumes of pure hydrogen. They are diesel-like oils that can absorb and release hydrogen on demand. They offer several key benefits:

• Easy to handle – diesel-like liquid at ambient conditions.
• Safe – non-explosive and hardly flammable
• Low price: <5$/kg and reusable.
• Energy density comparable with LH₂
• Utilisation of existing fuel infrastructure

There are a couple of projects underway demonstrating the solution: Chiyoda’s SPERA Hydrogen, and the Blue Danube project.

Ammonia has the highest volumetric and gravimetric hydrogen density of all options – for a given weight or volume you can transport more hydrogen than any other option. Furthermore, there is already a global ammonia infrastructure in place. However, it is toxic, corrosive, smells awful, and there are currently no commercialised fuel cells or engines that can efficiently use ammonia as a fuel.

A hydrogen pipe network becomes cost effective with hydrogen demands of over 100 tonnes per day. Furthermore, in countries (such as the UK) where homes are heated by natural gas, converting this network to hydrogen is a cost-effective solution to slashing emissions without massive investments in new infrastructure.

Moss Maritime, CCB Energy Holding, Hexagon Purus, IC Technology

Large volume hydrogen storage is going to be required in order to meet the future global demand. Large scale roll-out of solar and wind power will require energy storage to be able to balance energy production with energy demand.

There are several options, liquid hydrogen storage, metal hydrides, ammonia, LOHCs, or as a compressed gas in salt caverns. Each solution has strengths and weaknesses and is suitable to different applications and storage durations.

Looking forward, there will likely be a mix of all of the above, just as today there are a mix of fossil fuels and energy storage options. Hydrogen storage as liquid hydrogen, compressed hydrogen (in tanks) and metal hydrides are suitable for days to weeks. Ammonia and LOHCs from weeks to months, and salt cavern storage from months to years.

New tanks for liquid hydrogen storage are being developed to reduce the boil-off losses, with potential for losses of just 0.1W/m². This would mean that liquid hydrogen could be stored in these tanks for significantly longer – several months- with almost no boil off, increasing practicality and reducing operational cost.

Experience and knowledge gained from bunkering of LNG, and land-based hydrogen filling stations can be transferred to bunkering of hydrogen. Maritime bunkering of hydrogen differs from land-based filling stations due to the greater volumes and higher transfer rates involved. This requires development of connections and pumps that can handle greater volumes.

For both compressed hydrogen bunkering and liquid hydrogen bunkering, regulations and standards are being adapted for maritime hydrogen solutions. The development of CGH₂ and LH₂ couplings is underway for Emergency Release and Break Away functions.

IC Technology, HYON, Liquiline, Hexagon Purus, Hydrogen Storage

On 26th November 2020, the Norwegian government announced that all new car ferries and high-speed ferries from 2023 and 2025 respectively will be required to be zero emission. Our analysis shows that there are 63 routes that are challenging to electrify using batteries due to route requirements or access to charging infrastructure – therefore hydrogen is a better option. This represents a hydrogen demand of 107 tonnes per day from passenger ferry services alone. In addition, the Heidelberg/Felleskjøpet bulk ship project and HyShip project announced in 2020 are just two examples of other fleets that will add to this future demand.

For deep-sea shipping, even liquid hydrogen doesn’t have a high enough energy density – it takes up too much space. Ammonia and methanol offer promising zero emission solutions for these fleets. Both can be created using power from renewable sources, so-called “power-to-x” fuels.

In a pure form, liquid ammonia has a 50% higher volumetric energy density than liquid hydrogen. Therefore to go the same distance, a liquid ammonia fuel tank would take up only 2/3 the space of a liquid hydrogen tank – leaving more space available for goods. Methanol has an even higher energy density than ammonia, and is liquid across all normal environmental conditions – however results in CO₂ emissions when combusted.

Though hydrogen as a fuel is not forecast to gain a significant uptake in the deep-sea shipping fleets, it is important to note that it still plays an integral role as a building block in the production of ammonia and methanol.

On 26^th November 2020, the IMO approved interim guidelines for the use of methanol as a marine fuel.

Hydrogen and hydrogen carriers are capable of powering zero-emission vessels across all fleets. Some key Norwegian fleets and projects are picked out below:

High speed passenger ferries

Car ferries

• Norled – Hjelmeland
• Norled – Flagships
• Bodø-Moskenes connection

Shipping

• Heidelberg/Felleskjøpet dry-bulk carrier

Offshore:

• Viking Energy

Cruise

• Havila Kystruten

Fishery and aquaculture

Fjord 1, Hav Group, Stadt Sjøtransport, H2 Shipping, Amon Maritime, EKtank AB